Trends in Hiv Prevalence Essay Example for Free

Trends in Hiv Prevalence Essay ABSTRACT HIV prevalence in the world is becoming increasingly high. As of mid-1998, the HIV/AIDS pandemic continues to spread unequally around the world. In many cities in sub-Saharan African countries more than a quarter of young and middle-aged adults are infected with HIV, whereas in most developed countries, the number of annual AIDS cases continues to decrease. The status and of HIV epidemics in most other areas of the world remains uncertain because of inadequate data on the prevalence of HIV-risk behaviours. Hence, this paper presentation seeks to examine the trends of HIV prevalence across the world taking all the continents into consideration. INTRODUCTION HIV Human Immunodeficiency Virus is a lentivirus, and like all viruses of this type, it attacks the immune system. Lentiviruses are in turn part of a larger group of viruses known as retroviruses. The name lentivirus literally means slow virus because they take such a long time to produce any adverse effects in the body. They have been found in a number of different animals, including cats, sheep, horses and cattle. However, the most interesting lentivirus in terms of the investigation into the origins of HIV is the Simian Immunodeficiency Virus (SIV) that affects monkeys, which is believed to be at least 32,000 years old. It is now generally accepted that HIV is a descendant of a Simian Immunodeficiency Virus because certain strains of SIVs bear a very close resemblance to HIV-1 and HIV-2, the two types of HIV. HIV-2 for example corresponds to SIVsm, a strain of the Simian Immunodeficiency Virus found in the sooty mangabey (also known as the White-collared monkey), which is indigenous to western Africa. The more virulent, pandemic strain of HIV, namely HIV-1, was until recently more difficult to place. Until 1999, the closest counterpart that had been identified was SIVcpz, the SIV found in chimpanzees. However, this virus still had certain significant differences from HIV There are a number of factors that may have contributed to the sudden spread of HIV, most of which occurred in the latter half of the twentieth century and these includes: * Blood Transfusion * Drug Use * Mother-to-Child Transfusion ORIGIN OF HIV The origin of AIDS and HIV has puzzled scientists ever since the illness first came to light in the early 1980s. For over twenty years it has been the subject of fierce debate and the cause of countless arguments, with everything from a promiscuous flight attendant to a suspect vaccine programme being blamed. The first recognized case of AIDS occurred in the USA in the early 1980s. A number of gay men in New York and California suddenly began to develop rare opportunistic infections and cancers that seemed stubbornly resistant to any treatment. At this time, AIDS did not yet have a name, but it quickly became obvious that all the men were suffering from a common syndrome. The discovery of HIV, the Human Immunodeficiency Virus, was made soon after. While some were initially resistant to acknowledge the connection (and indeed some remain so today), there is now clear evidence to prove that HIV causes AIDS. So, in order to find the source of AIDS, it is necessary to look for the origin of HIV, and find out how, when and where HIV first began to cause disease in humans. In February 1999 a group of researchers from the University of Alabama announced that they had found a type of SIVcpz that was almost identical to HIV-1. This particular strain was identified in a frozen sample taken from a captive member of the sub-group of chimpanzees known as Pan Troglodytes (P. t. troglodytes), which were once common in west-central Africa. The researchers (led by Paul Sharp of Nottingham University and Beatrice Hahn of the University of Alabama) made the discovery during the course of a 10-year long study into the origins of the virus. They claimed that this sample proved that chimpanzees were the source of HIV-1, and that the virus had at some point crossed species from chimps to humans. Their final findings were published two years later in Nature magazine. In this article, they concluded that wild chimps had been infected simultaneously with two different simian immunodeficiency viruses which had viral sex to form a third virus that could be passed on to other chimps and, more significantly, was capable of infecting humans and causing AIDS. These two different viruses were traced back to a SIV that infected red-capped mangabeys and one found in greater spot-nosed monkeys. They believe that the hybridisation took place inside chimps that had become infected with both strains of SIV after they hunted and killed the two smaller species of monkey. They also concluded that all three groups of HIV-1 namely Group M, N and O (see our strains and subtypes page for more information on these) came from the SIV found in P. t. troglodytes, and that each group represented a separate crossover event from chimps to humans. It has been known for a long time that certain viruses can pass between species. Indeed, the very fact that chimpanzees obtained SIV from two other species of primate shows just how easily this crossover can occur. As animals ourselves, we are just as susceptible. When a viral transfer between animals and humans takes place, it is known as zoonosis. The most commonly accepted theory on how zoonosis took place, and how SIV became HIV in humans is that of the hunter. In this scenario, SIVcpz was transferred to humans as a result of chimps being killed and eaten or their blood getting into cuts or wounds on the hunter. Normally the hunters body would have fought off SIV, but on a few occasions it adapted itself within its new human host and became HIV-1. The fact that there were several different early strains of HIV, each with a slightly different genetic make-up (the most common of which was HIV-1 group M), would support this theory: every time it passed from a chimpanzee to a man, it would have developed in a slightly different way within his body, and thus produced a slightly different strain. An article published in The Lancet in 20044 , also shows how retroviral transfer from primates to hunters is still occurring even today. In a sample of 1099 individuals in Cameroon, they discovered ten (1%) were infected with SFV (Simian Foamy Virus), an illness which, like SIV, was previously thought only to infect primates. All these infections were believed to have been acquired through the butchering and consumption of monkey and ape meat. Discoveries such as this have led to calls for an outright ban on bush meat hunting to prevent simian viruses being passed to humans. Others theories include: * The oral polio vaccine (OPV) theory * The contaminated needle theory * The colonialism theory * The conspiracy theory Four of the earliest known instances of HIV infection are as follows: * A plasma sample taken in 1959 from an adult male living in what is now the Democratic Republic of the Congo. * A lymph node sample taken in 1960 from an adult female, also from the Democratic Republic of the Congo. * HIV found in tissue samples from an American teenager who died in St. Louis in 1969. A 1998 analysis of the plasma sample from 1959 suggested that HIV-1 was introduced into humans around the 1940s or the early 1950s.   In January 2000, the results of a new study16 suggested that the first case of HIV-1 infection occurred around 1931 in West Africa. This estimate (which had a 15 year margin of error) was based on a complex computer model of HIVs evolution. However, a study in 200817 dated the origin of HIV to between 1884 and 1924, much earlier than previous estimates. The researchers compared the viral sequence from 1959 (the oldest known HIV-1 specimen) to the newly discovered sequence from 1960. They found a significant genetic difference between them, demonstrating diversification of HIV-1 occurred long before the AIDS pandemic was recognised. The authors suggest a long history of the virus in Africa and call Kinshasa the â€Å"epicentre of the HIV/AIDS pandemic† in Central Africa. They propose the early spread of HIV was concurrent with the development of colonial cities, in which crowding of people increased opportunities for HIV transmission. If accurate, these findings imply that HIV existed before many scenarios (such as the OPV and conspiracy theories) suggest. Until recently, the origins of the HIV-2 virus had remained relatively unexplored. HIV-2 is thought to come from the SIV in Sooty Mangabeys rather than chimpanzees, but the crossover to humans is believed to have happened in a similar way (i.e. through the butchering and consumption of monkey meat). It is far rarer, significantly less infectious and progresses more slowly to AIDS than HIV-1. As a result, it infects far fewer people, and is mainly confined to a few countries in West Africa. In May 2003, a group of Belgian researchers published a report18 in Proceedings of the National Academy of Science. By analysing samples of the two different subtypes of HIV-2 (A and B) taken from infected individuals and SIV samples taken from sooty mangabeys, Dr Vandamme concluded that subtype A had passed into humans around 1940 and subtype B in 1945 (plus or minus 16 years or so). Her team of researchers also discovered that the virus had originated in Guinea-Bissau and that its spread was most likely precipitated by the independence war that took place in the country between 1963 and 1974 (Guinea-Bissau is a former Portuguese colony). Her theory was backed up by the fact that the first European cases of HIV-2 were discovered among Portuguese veterans of the war, many of whom had received blood transfusions or unsterile injections following injury, or had possibly had relationships with local women. TRENDS IN HIV PREVALENCE Since 2001, MEASURE Demographic and Health Surveys (DHS) have included HIV testing in 31 countries. In 13 of these countries testing has been included in two surveys, which provides an opportunity to examine trends. However, trend data must be viewed with caution, as only some changes are statistically significant. Trends in HIV Prevalence In the charts below, changes in HIV prevalence that are statistically significant are marked with an asterisk and a star.   While it may appear that HIV prevalence has decreased in most countries, these decreases are only statistically significant in the Dominican Republic, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Tanzania, Malawi, and Zimbabwe. This means that in these countries, the change is large enough that it is unlikely that the decrease is due to chance alone; it probably represents true change in the HIV prevalence in the population. In some countries, such as Tanzania, the decrease is statistically significant for the population as a whole, and for men, but not for women. In Cameroon, Burkina Faso, and Zimbabwe, HIV prevalence has decreased among both women and men. DHS surveys have not detected any change in HIV prevalence in Mali, Senegal, Ethiopia, Kenya, Rwanda, Lesotho, or Zambia. What does this mean? Because HIV prevalence is a measure of all HIV infections in a population, a decrease in HIV prevalence could indicate that fewer people are becoming infected, and/or that more people with HIV have died in a population. Similarly, an increase in HIV prevalence could point to more new infections, and/or could indicate an increase in HIV-positive individuals living longer on anti-retroviral therapy. TRENDS IN HIV PREVALENCE IN ASIA PACIFIC REGION With over 60 percent if the worlds population, the Asia-Pacific Region presents a wide diversity of HIV-related risk environments, in terms of behavioural, political and cultural factors. Within the framework of this diversity, there has also been a wide range of HIV epidemics and responses, both across and within countries. It is not therefore possible to present a simple analysis of the actual and potential occurrence of HIV infection in this vast region. Our understanding of the HIV epidemic and its determinants in the Asia-Pacific Region has improved substantially over the past 3-5 years, as a number of countries have implemented comprehensive surveillance systems for HIV prevalence, and sexual and injecting risk behaviours. Despite these advances, a number of countries still have a limited capacity to assess the occurrence of HIV infection and related behaviours, and to monitor the impact of interventions. A recent factor of importance in the Asia-Pacific environment has been the economic tumult of the past year. While various predictions have been made of the potential impact on the HIV epidemic, it is not possible to state with any certainty whether their net effect will be to increase or decrease the incidence of risk behaviour or HIV transmission. Since extensive HIV transmission has been a very recent phenomenon in a number of Asia-Pacific countries, there has so far been little experience with the care and support of people with HIV-related illness. Apart from Australia, Thailand and Japan, few countries have a healthcare workforce, which is adequately prepared to care for substantial numbers of people developing HIV-related illness. Without simplifying too much, it is possible to classify the differing patterns of HIV transmission into broad categories, based on available surveillance data. In Australia and New Zealand, the virtually all HIV transmission has been through sex between men, and the incidence of transmission via this route has long been recognized as having declined substantially in the 1980s. In a few countries, such as Thailand, Cambodia and parts of Myanmar and India, heterosexual transmission has been extensive, mediated through large-scale sex industries but extending now to the regular partners of sex workers male clients. Some countries have HIV epidemics among injecting drug users (IDU) with limited associated heterosexual transmission. These include countries such as Thailand, Malaysia, Vietnam, and some areas of India and China. Other countries have limited, but well documented spread of HIV infections, such as the Philippines, Indonesia, Japan, and South Korea. Several countries have not reported substantial numbers of HIV infection, but do not appear to have comprehensive, ongoing surveillance systems. Papua New Guinea, Pakistan and Bangladesh are countries which may have a substantial risk environment, and need to strengthen their surveillance activities. The analysis of HIV epidemic trends in the region becomes more meaningful when a focus is placed on populations whose cultural and social affinity and networks transcend geopolitical borders. A new geography of HIV/AIDS in the region then emerges that helps recognize the foci of intense HIV spread. These include large metropolitan areas in western and southern India (Mumbai, Chinnai); the India/Nepal border area; the larger Golden Triangle, which reaches out to northern Thailand, eastern Myanmar, but also encompasses the areas of Manipur in India and Yunnan in China; and the Mekong delta area, which includes Cambodia and southern Vietnam. To gain better understanding of the dynamics of HIV epidemics, factors of affinity between populations as well as mobility patterns must be explored and mapped out.

German Essays Enlightenment and Religious Tolerance

German Essays Enlightenment and Religious Tolerance Enlightenment and Religious Tolerance in Gotthold Ephraim Lessings Die Juden and Nathan der Weise. Because of the impact of the intellectual revolution, the eighteenth century is frequently referred to as the Age of Reason. More specifically, the term Enlightenment is used because a major feature of this era was the minds emphasis on using rationality as a framework within which to view major philosophical issues. According to Benson and DiYanni, the Enlightenment continued an emphasis on secular concerns that began during the Renaissance and continued with the rise of scientific and philosophical thought during the seventeenth century (2005: 397). During this epoch, superstition came to be replaced with logical thought and analysis. These influences can be seen in the works of Gotthold Ephraim Lessing. Lessing is considered by many to be a major representative of the Enlightenment Era. He was well known as a dramatist, critic, and philosopher during this time frame in Germany, and his works remain popular and influential even in contemporary times. In terms of religious tolerance, Lessings philosophies are perhaps best represented by two of his dramatic pieces, Nathan der Weise, or Nathan the Wise, and Die Juden, or The Jews. According to one scholar, these two plays by Lessing are instructive examples that demonstrate, when read in light of the historical specificity of their context, the force of critical thinking that drove Lessing (Goetschel 2003: 63). Lessings impact is still felt today. According to Garland, The Jews had shown [Lessings] deep antipathy to the unreasonable hatred directed against that people (1962: 191). In the eighteenth century, the ideas introduced by the Enlightenment had far-reaching effects on Western society. In fact, many of those ideas remain influential to this day. Formerly, much of Europe had been plagued by archaic prejudices towards those whose religious faith was considered to be a minority. This theme is nowhere more evident than in Lessings plays, Nathan the Wise and The Jews According to Goetschel, both of these works are evidence of Lessings critical concern to rethink both the claims of Christianity and the groundwork of modern national identity (2003: 63). Gotthold Ephraim Lessing was born in the quiet country town of Kamenz. His father, Johann Gottfried Lessing, was an educated man, but he was not wealthy. He worked as an assistant pastor in Kamenz It was from him that the younger Lessing got his love of books, something that would last throughout his life. Lessing attended the University of Leipzig. Leipzig was a new world for the young man. It was far different from Kamenz. In fact, it was sometimes known as Little Paris because of the level of sophistication that existed there (Garland 1962: 7). Lessings early literary works included Damon and The Young Scholar Neither of these works gave any indication that Lessing would eventually come to be known as the father of German literature, although The Young Scholar enjoyed a brief spate of popularity on the stage. During his youth, Lessing exhibited a tendency to rebel against the status quo. This became particularly clear during his college days. Correspondence between him and his parents shows evidence of a young man of great curiosity, and one for whom a tried and true path would not suffice. His parents wished the best for him, naturally: a steady career that would bring him stability and a modest amount of comfort. It was also hoped that Lessing, as the eldest, would establish himself in order to contribute to the education of his younger siblings. However, this was not the path that Lessing chose to follow. His adventurous spirit, combined with his youth, and the atmosphere of Leipzig, all combined to determine a path that would veer from his parents wishes. These experiences led him to become a thinker and writer who was ahead of his time, as well as one of the finest minds of the German Enlightenment. Lessings Plays: Nathan the Wise and The Jews. In many ways, Nathan the Wise can be considered a play that was ahead of its time. According to Wilms, this play is canonized not just in German literature, but also in the liberal Enlightenment reception of that literature and its tradition (2002: 306). The central theme is the concept of brotherhood among mankind. Through the vehicle of drama, Lessing puts forth the message that people should be able to exist in harmony despite their religious denomination or group affiliation. For example, it should not matter whether one is a Jew, a Christian, or a Muslim; people should respect each other and coexist peacefully no matter what religious affiliations they have. Lessings primary message in Nathan the Wise is that the main consideration should be the value of individuals as human beings, and that group membership is secondary to this. This is the concept that the character of Nathan proposes. The role of money in this play merits some attention. Lessing uses money as a prop and as a theme. It is an integral part of the discourse of the play. According to Graham, from the first moiment of the pla we are never allowed to forget Nathans association with money and the desirable goods that money can buy (1973: 179). Money, and the power of money, are apparently very important to Lessing here. It is also significant to note that Nathan is rarely the recipient of money. He is rather, the giver. The suggestion that Nathan is wise may play a role here. This may be yet another way in which Lessing underscores the value of giving rather than receiving. As Graham notes, the religious impulse of surrendering the grateful self to the giver of life reverberates in every one of these situations, in varying degreees of consciousness, and in every instance soemthing of the same release of love is experienced and communicated (1973: 185). It can be said that the true villain of Lessings play is the insidious hatred that is passed down from one generation to the next. This hatred is a complex mixture of mistrust and ignorance and is so deeply ingrained in people that often it remains unquestioned, simply a part of life. Nathan the Wise is often considered a vehicle in which Lessings theological beliefs are given voice. Lessing believed in freedom of thought and was a serious student of theology. In some ways, it appears that Nathan the Wise is a mixture of various theological ideologies, many of which also appear in Lessings Erziehung des Menschengeschlechts, or Education of the Human Race, which was published in 1780. According to Wilms, in Nathan the Wise, rationality successfully overcomes a series of obstacles and works its way into a traditional Lebenswelt dominated by prejudice that does not shy away from murder and even genocide (2002: 306). The triumph of rationality here is a central theme of Lessings work. He takes on the traditional themes of religious dogma in this play and shows how individuals can take a rational approach to them The title of the play refers to the main character, Nathan. The play takes place in Jerusalem, where Nathan lives as a prosperous Jew. The time frame is in the twelfth century. In the play, it is significant that Nathan adopts an orphan. The orphan happens to be Christian, but this does not matter to Nathan, who simply takes her into his home because she was the daughter of a friend. Immediately we see that Nathan is the kind of character to rise above petty details, and to act in the interests of humanity above all else.   Considering the time and setting, this is certainly no ordinary act. Tension builds, however, when a suitor comes into the picture. Nathan is aware of the inherent danger in this situation. Should the identity of his adoptive daughter be made known, the results would most undoubtedly be tragic for all involved. This use of hidden identity was common in the literary works of Lessings time, and it is used quite effectively in this play. Ultimately, Lessings message in Nathan the Wise is that humanity is far more important than religious affiliation. Lessing asserts that the worth of people should not based on what religion individuals are born into, or on blood relations, but rather on the very fact that they are human. According to Garland, anti-Semitism had lessened somewhat, but was still considered widespread during the period of time in which Lessing was writing. The theme of the play is that people cannot be judged by their religious affiliations. The plot of the play is simple, ostensibly to allow the theme to stand out. The character of the Baron is clearly full of strong anti-Semitic prejudices. Therefore, when he is attacked by robbers, he immediately concludes that the perpetrators were of the Jewish persuasion, in keeping with his beliefs. It is of course ironic that the attackers are found to be Christian. Furthermore, they are employees of the Baron himself. As for the noble Stranger who rescues the Baron, he is revealed to be Jewish himself. This puts the Baron in a rather awkward situation, as he has promised the hand of his daughter to The Stranger in return for his gallantry. Of course, once the Stranger has identified himself as a Jew, the wedding is now unthinkable. According to Garland, Lessings interest is clearly centered on the serious aspects of the play The moral is pointed not only by the action, but is also underlined by frequent passages of dialogue (1962: 111). Here, as in Nathan the Wise, Lessing effectively uses the tactic of the hidden identity to elucidate his point. Once again, the message is that humanity is far more important than religious affiliation. In The Jews, Lessing asserts again that the worth of people should not be based on what religion individuals are born into This is quite apparent when it turns out that the Barons attackers are in fact the very servants on whom he relies. The person who saves him, The Stranger, turns out to be a Jew himself, which adds to the irony. Lessings attitude to orthodoxy is rather complex. Much of his beliefs in his early life were strongly influenced by his friend, the freethinker Mylius. Mylius befriended him in Leipzig. Several years older, Mylius had a great deal of influence on his young protà ©gà © In a letter to his father, written when he was twenty years old, we can see the evolution of the young Lessings thoughts about religion: Time will prove whether he is the better Christian, who has the principles of Christian doctrine in his memory, and on his lips, often without understanding them, who goes to church and observes all the practices (of religion) just because they are customary; or he who has once prudently doubted and has reached conviction by the path of investigation, or at an rate strives to reach it. The Christian religion is not a thing which one should accept on trust from ones parents (quoted in Garland 1962: 151). Seeds of unrest and a pull towards independent thinking are apparent even at this early stage in Lessings development. We can already see this tendency to be skeptical of church-goers whose actions are at odds with their stated beliefs. As stated earlier, anti-Semitism was somewhat less pronounced during this period, although it still clearly existed. The idea that people should not be judged by their religious affiliations seems to have already taken hold in Lessings young mind. According to Garland, Lessing was struck by the obvious divergence between the doctrine of Christ and the mode of life of many of those who passed as Christians (1962: 152). He was very much aware of the hypocrisy inherent in many who claimed to be Christians. Even as a young man, he was easily incensed by intolerance towards religious practices. He seemed to have little respect for orthodox theologies that had little room for the beliefs of others. In the eighteenth century, as discussed earlier, the ideas introduced by the Enlightenment had far-reaching effects on Western society. In fact, many of those ideas remain influential to this day. Formerly, much of Europe had been plagued by archaic prejudices towards those whose religious faith was considered to be a minority. Conclusion The period of the Enlightenment in Europe signaled a change in thinking. As representative pieces, these two plays by Lessing are examples of these new attitudes towards religion. Because of the impact of the intellectual revolution, the eighteenth century is frequently referred to as the Age of Reason. More specifically, the term Enlightenment is used because a major feature of this era was the minds emphasis on using rationality as a framework within which to view major philosophical issues. During this epoch, superstition came to be replaced with logical thought and analysis. These influences can be seen in the works of Gotthold Ephraim Lessing. A recurring theme in the works of Lessing is the concept of brotherhood among mankind. Through the vehicle of drama, Lessing puts forth the idea that people should be able to exist in harmony despite their religious denomination or group affiliation. Whether one is Christian, Muslim, or Jew, is irrelevant Ones connection to a particular religious group should not affect the basic respect that people should feel for one another. People of different faiths and beliefs should respect each other and coexist peacefully no matter what religious affiliations they have. Lessings primary message in Nathan the Wise is that the main consideration should be the value of individuals as human beings, and that group membership is secondary to this. This is the concept that the character of Nathan proposes. This message is also present in The Jews Here, as in Nathan the Wise, Lessing once again makes it clear that humanity is far more important than religious affiliation. In The Jews, Lessing asserts again that the value of a person should be independent of what religion that person is born into. This is quite apparent when it turns out that the Barons attackers are in fact the very servants on whom he relies. The person who saves him, The Stranger, turns out to be a Jew himself, which adds to the irony. Lessing, as we have seen, is considered by many to be a major representative of the Enlightenment Era. He was well known as a dramatist, critic, and philosopher during this time frame in Germany. The fact that his works remain popular and influential even in contemporary times is a testament to his ongoing influence. In terms of religious tolerance, Lessings philosophies are perhaps best represented by these two dramatic pieces Each of these works is an example of the critical and independent thinking that drove Lessing from his early days at university in Leipzig and throughout his life. Lessings impact is still felt today. As discussed above, the ideas brought to the fore in the eighteenth century had a tremendous impact on Western society. The concepts introduced during the stage known as the Enlightenment had far-reaching effects. In fact, many of these ideas remain influential to this day. Many of the prejudices that had been formulated regarding religious affiliations were analyzed and found to be wanting. This theme is nowhere more evident than in Lessings plays, Nathan the Wise and The Jews. Lessings messages in both of these plays call into question both the claims of Christianity and the significance of the underlying national identity. Many people consider Lessing to be a major representative of the Period of Enlightenment in Germany. His influence is felt in many spheres: he was well known as a dramatist, critic, and philosopher during this epoch, and his works remain popular and influential even in contemporary times. In terms of religious tolerance, Lessings philosophies are perhaps best represented by two of his dramatic pieces, Nathan der Weise, or Nathan the Wise, and Die Juden, or The Jews In each of these plays, Lessing makes clear his belief that people should not be judged by their religious affiliations. In Nathan the Wise, we find a complex mix of ideologies. These same ideologies are present in The Jews, although to a lesser extent. It can be said that the true villain in each of these plays is the insidious hatred that is passed down from one generation to the next. Lessing portrays this hatred as a complex mixture of mistrust and ignorance that is so deeply ingrained in people that often it remains unquestioned. Both Nathan the Wise and The Jews can be considered vehicles in which Lessings theological beliefs are given voice. In the eighteenth century, the ideas introduced by the Enlightenment had far-reaching effects on Western society, and those effects are elucidated in these dramatic works. Much of Europe had been riddled with archaic prejudices towards those whose religious faith was considered to be a minority. Lessing focuses on these prejudices in an effective dramatic format. In terms of religious tolerance, Lessings philosophies are strongly represented by these two dra matic pieces. In the eighteenth century, the ideas introduced by the Enlightenment had far-reaching effects on Western society. In fact, many of those ideas remain influential to this day. For readers today, these works continue to have an impact. Both of these plays offer a close look at the evolving attitudes towards religion and society of that era.

Bulk and Nanomaterials Synthesis Experiment

Bulk and Nanomaterials Synthesis Experiment Introduction In recent years, bulk and nano materials in several areas of pure and applied sciences have captivated a great interest amongst the researchers. Because of their fascinating and tremendous properties with great potential in many applications such as solid state lasers, lamp industry, colour displays, etc (Senthil et al, 2001; Tamrakar et al, 2013â€Å"a†; Tamrakar et al, 2013â€Å"b†; Tamrakar et al, 2014â€Å"a†; Tamrakar et al, 2014â€Å"b†) these bulk and nano materials having great interests of research. Experimental Section 2.1. Materials and Synthesis Samarium oxide (Sm2O3) and samarium nitrate (Sm(NO3)3.6H2O) were used as the rare earth sources of K3Gd(PO4)2:Sm3+ in the following synthesis methods. Urea (NH2CONH2) and citric acid monohydrate (C6H8O7.H2O) were used as fuels in combustion and citrate gel combustion methods. The raw materials in carbonate form were used in solid state method whereas in case of combustion and citrate gel method it could be used in nitrate form. 2.1.1. Synthesis of undoped K3Gd(PO4)2 and Sm3+ doped K3Gd(PO4)2 by solid state method The raw materials potassium carbonate (K2CO3), gadolinium oxide (Gd2O3), ammonium dihydrogen orthophosphate (NH4H2PO4) and samarium oxide (Sm2O3) of high purity were mixed and grounded together with the smallest possible amount of ethanol in an agate mortar for an hour to obtain a homogeneous mixture. The stoichometric amount of starting materials was weighed according to the balanced chemical reactions for the undoped K3Gd(PO4)2 (equation (1)) and Sm3+ doped K3Gd(PO4)2 (equation (2)) and are given as follows: The mixed powder was transferred to the alumina crucible and placed into the muffle furnace at 850  °C for 7 hours. The prepared phosphors were cooled to room temperature and grounded to obtain fine powder. 2.1.2. Synthesis of undoped K3Gd(PO4)2 and Sm3+ doped K3Gd(PO4)2 by combustion method with urea (NH2CONH2) Urea (NH2CONH2) as a fuel used for the preparation of the undoped K3Gd(PO4)2 and Sm3+ doped K3Gd(PO4)2 by combustion method. The reagents used were potassium nitrate (KNO3), gadolinium oxide (Gd2O3), ammonium dihydrogen orthophosphate (NH4H2 PO4), urea (NH2CONH2) and samarium nitrate (Sm(NO3)3.6H2O) of high purity. The materials were weighed according to the balanced chemical reactions (equations (3 4)) given below: The stoichometric ratio of reagents was kept at unity, so that the heat liberated during combustion be maximized for complete combustion. The weighed reagents were dissolved in a small amount of distilled water and thoroughly mixed in an agate mortar to obtain a paste. The obtained paste was transferred to the alumina crucible and inserted into the pre-heated muffle furnace sustained at 600. The combustion process occurs with the evolution of the large amount of gasses. The whole reaction takes 3-5 minutes to complete. The final white foamy product was cooled to room temperature and ground to obtain fine powder. The fine powder then further annealed at 850 for 3 h to get complete crystallanity. 2.1.3. Synthesis of undoped K3Gd(PO4)2 and Sm3+ doped K3Gd(PO4)2 by citrate-gel combustion method with citric acid (C6H8O7.H2O) Potassium nitrate (KNO3), gadolinium oxide (Gd2O3), ammonium dihydrogen orthophosphate (NH4H2 PO4), samarium nitrate (Sm (NO3)3.6H2O), citric acid monohydrate (C6H8O7.H2O) of high purity was used as the starting materials for the preparation of the undoped K3Gd(PO4)2 and Sm3+ doped K3Gd(PO4)2. The citrate gel was prepared according to the following chemical reactions: The reactants in stoichometric amounts were weighed according to equations (5 6) and dissolved together in 10 ml distilled water. The mixed solution was heated to 85 °C on a hot plate with continuous stirring for 2 hours to obtain a viscous gel. The obtained gel was placed into the pre-heated muffle furnace maintained at 600. After several minutes, the gel boiled followed by evolution of huge amounts of gases. Eventually, spontaneous ignition occurred and the gel underwent combustion. The whole process ended within a few minutes. The final products were cooled to room temperature and grounded to obtain fine powder. The fine powder, then further annealed at 850 for 3 h to ensure that all the unwanted impurities were evaporated and only the higher temperature pure monoclinic phase of K3Gd(PO4)2 remains as the final product. 2.2. Characterization The X-ray powder diffraction patterns of the synthesized powders were recorded by using Philips X’pert MPD system with Cu KÃŽ ± radiation (1.5406 Ã…) operated at 40 kV and 30 mA. The 2ÃŽ ¸ was varied in the range of 10 ° ≠¤ 2ÃŽ ¸ ≠¤ 60 ° with step size of 0.01 ° (2ÃŽ ¸) and count time of 18s /step. The lattice parameters were calculated using unit cell program [ †¦]. The diffuse reflectance spectra were recorded using a Shimadzu UV-VIS-2600 double beam spectrophotometer coupled with an ISR (integrating sphere assembly). The photoluminescence (PL) (excitation and emission spectra) and the lifetime measurements of the synthesized phosphors were recorded using a Cary-Eclipse Spectrofluorometer equipped with a 150W Xenon lamp as an excitation source with slit width 5 nm and 2.5 nm for excitation and emission monochromator. All the measurements were performed at room temperature. 3. Results and discussion 3.1. Phase formation The powder XRD patterns of the Sm3+ doped K3Gd(PO4)2 samples synthesized by solid state, combustion and citrate gel combustion methods were measured. The patterns are shown in figure 1 and compared with that of the JCPDS card 049-1085 (K3Gd(PO4)2). The XRD patterns of Sm3+ doped K3Gd(PO4)2 phosphor indicates a pure phase of the standard K3Gd(PO4)2 and all the peaks were in good agreement which belongs to the monoclinic phase with space group P21/m [20]. Also the XRD shows that the formed materials are in crystalline and homogeneous forms. The particle size of the prepared samples have been calculated from the full width half maximum (FWHM) of the intense peaks using Debye Scherer formula. Here, D is particle size, k is the Scherrer’s constant (0.89), ÃŽ ² is FWHM (full width half maximum), ÃŽ » = 1.54 A ° is the wavelength of X-ray source (Cu (KÃŽ ±) radiation), ÃŽ ¸ is Bragg angle of the X-ray diffraction peak. The average particle size of the Sm3+ doped K3Gd(PO4)2 phosphor prepared by solid state method was found approximately 39 nm, while those prepared by combustion and citrate gel methods were found to be 23 nm and 27 nm. The decrease in the particle size is due to increase in the FWHM of the XRD peaks for the phosphor synthesized by combustion method and citrate gel combustion method. The variation of particle size with FWHM is also tabulated in table {}. References

Comparing Heroes and Villains in Measure for Measure, Othello, and Haml

Comparing Heroes and Villains in Measure for Measure, Othello, and Hamlet According to John Steinbeck, "Heroes are innocent; villains are cunning." This statement likely regards the internal aspects of characters, such as intellect, reasoning/motivation, and morality/responsibility, as indicated by consistency in action and/or articulation, as in direct speech or soliloquy. An examination of the heroes and villains in Measure for Measure, Othello, and Hamlet can determine whether Steinbeck's generalization is applicable. Although Measure for Measure is not a tragedy by standard conventions, Angelo can be considered a tragic hero since he falls because of his hamartia, hubris. While he fits into Steinbeck's generalization of "innocent" as a victim of the circumstances created by the Duke, Angelo is responsible for his own fate. When asked "Whether you had not sometime in your life/Err'd in this point which now you censure [Claudio]," (14-15, II.i) Angelo affirms he has never felt love or passion, nor had sex. Thus, being a man of virtue, Angelo believes he has the right to impose morality upon the city: he unquestioningly enforces the law forbidding fornication. Since he is righteous, Angelo's motivation is not wrong or immoral; however, once he begins to manipulate sexual morality in his favor, his innocence decreases. Angelo offers to spare Claudio's life should Isabella engage in sexual relations with him; he claims to be tempted by Isabella's virtue, and does not recognize his own hypocrisy in pro posing there is charity in sinning to save Claudio. The reduction of Angelo's virtue and righteousness continues as he sends Claudio's death warrant after he has had sex with Mariana, who he believed to be Isabella. In additio... ...le to comedies, when considering A Midsummer's Night Dream, As You Like It, and Measure for Measure, in which the heroes are mostly virtuous ("innocent"), and the villains are devious ("cunning"); however, since the Duke and Iago are both cunning villains, Steinbeck's notion of villains is also appropriate for tragedy. More importantly, though, as previously noted, these â€Å"heroes† are directly responsible for their fall, and therefore challenge readers to consider the roles of heroes and villains in tragedy less traditionally; Othello is not cunning, nor is he innocent, and so Steinbeck's parameters exclude him. Thus, a more encompassing generalization would be that tragic heroes are responsible, and "villains are cunning" (Steinbeck). Works Cited Shakespeare, William. William Shakespeare: The Complete Works. Ed. Alfred Harbage. 1969. Baltimore: Penguin, 1994.

The Proposed Legalization of Same Sex Marriage :: Gay Lesbian Homosexual Papers

The Proposed Legalization of Same Sex Marriage The proposed legalization of same-sex marriage is one of the most significant issues in contemporary American family law. Presently, it is one of the most vigorously advocated reforms discussed in law reviews, one of the most explosive political questions facing lawmakers, and one of the most provocative issues emerging before American courts. If same-sex marriage is legalized, it could be one of the most revolutionary policy decisions in the history of American family law. The potential consequences, positive or negative, for children, parents, same-sex couples, families, social structure public health, and the status of women are enormous. Given the importance of the issue, the value of comprehensive debate of the reasons for and against legalizing same-sex marriage should be obvious. Marriage is much more than merely a commitment to love one another. Aside from societal and religious conventions, marriage entails legally imposed financial responsibility and legally authorized financial benefits. Marriage provides automatic legal protections for the spouse, including medical visitation, succession of a deceased spouse's property, as well as pension and other rights. When two adults desire to "contract" in the eyes of the law, as well a perhaps promise in the eyes of the Lord and their friends and family, to be responsible for the obligations of marriage as well as to enjoy its benefits, should the law prohibit their request merely because they are of the same gender? I intend to prove that because of Article IV of the United States Constitution, there is no reason why the federal government nor any state government should restrict marriage to a predefined heterosexual relationship. Marriage has changed throughout the years. In Western law, wives are now equal rather than subordinate partners; interracial marriage is now widely accepted, both in statute and in society; and marital failure itself, rather than the fault of one partner, may be grounds for a divorce. Societal change have been felt in marriages over the past 25 years as divorce rates have increased and have been integrated into even upper class families. Proposals to legalize same-sex marriage or to enact broad domestic partnership laws are currently being promoted by gay and lesbian activists, especially in Europe and North America. The trend in western European nations during the past decade has been to increase legal aid to homosexual relations and has included marriage benefits to some same-sex couples.

Social diagnosis

Would you rather follow your heart or your head? 33. What is your opinion about same gender relationships? 34. Do you think the past matters in a relationship? 35. How would you react if I told I have had a relationship with a partner of the same gender? 36. Do you believe in any god or gods? Why? 37. Do you have any political opinions? 38. Do you have any hobbies? 39. Have you ever experimented with drugs? 40. What do you think is the key to good parenting? 41. Do you like pets in the house? 42.What is the weirdest thing about you? 43. Tell me something about your first kiss. 44. If your parents don't like me for some reason, is that a deal breaker? 45. Have you ever regretted one of your ‘romantic encounters'? 46. Do you believe in soul mates? 47. Do you have a criminal record, any contraction of diseases? 48. What is your dream Job? 49. Are you willing to stay away from your family if you ever have to for a Job? 50. Which living celebrity/author/singer would you like to know ? 51 . If you could meet a famous dead person, whom would you like to meet? . What do you think about unfaithfulness in a relationship? 53. Do you think love at first sight is possible? 54. How do you balance personal responsibilities with relationship responsibilities? 55.Who is your favorite fictional character and why? 56. Do you prefer reading books or watching movies? 57. Do you have any regrets in life? 58. What is your ideal vacation? 59. Do you have a favorite movie? 60. If you are allowed to do Just one thing for the rest of your life, what would it be? 61 . What is the one thing about you that you take pride in? . What is the most courageous thing you have ever done in your life? 63. What is your earliest memory? 64. What do you like most about you? 65. Will you be 0K with me hanging out with you and your friends? 66. What would you do if you wanted to live your life differently? 67. Have you ever taken dancing classes? DO you like to dance? 68. Do you think it is importan t to learn any form ofa performing art? 69. What are you looking for in a relationship? In the long term or short term? 70. If you have three wishes, what do would you wish for? 71 .Which is the song that makes you happy? 72. If you could have a superpower, what would be your superpower? 73. Who is the most influential person for you so far in life? 74. Is there a movie that makes you cry no matter how many times you watch it? 75. If you could change one thing about yourself, what would it be? 76. What is the best advice you ever received? 77 What kind ot music you like? 78. If you had a previous relationship, why did your last relationship break up? 79. Are you still friends with that person? 80. Was there ever a best moment you spent with them? 1 .What are the craziest things that youVe done with someone? 82. What will you have accomplished one year from now? 83. If you could go on a road trip where would you go? 84. What is the best part about family life? 85. What is a favorite memory you have of being with your family? 86. Tell me 3 good points about me. 87. What are your expectations of me? 88. Did you ever want to kill someone? 89. Have you ever wanted something really bad and then later, not so much? 90. Is there anything I could do to make you think I am bad? 91 . What would you do without lectricity for 3 days? 2. Do you like to go shopping, not buying, shopping? 93. After I had asked you out for the first time, was there any part of you that wanted to say no? 94. Where are some other places you like to go on dates? 95. What are your views on open relationships? Do you know what an open relationship is? 96. Would you ever adopt a child? 97. Is money more important to you or arerelationships you share with people more important?

Development through the life stages P2 Essay

The causes of the life factor Down Syndrome Foetal alcohol syndrome Bullying Peer groups Smoking The effect on the development on an individual (PIES)The physical side effect to a child with down syndrome is that they have a small nose and they have a flat nasal bridge, they also have a small mouth, their eyes slant either upwards or downwards. They have weak muscle tone which means they are very floppy; they have big hands and have short fingers. They may have a weight problem which will cause them to put on weight and will affect how they do activities if they start to get overweight and be limited in what they do. They may share physical features from their parent which will make them different. For intellectual, the child may develop a lot of mental health issues while they grow older, many of them face having anxiety, repetitive and obsessive compulsive behaviours. For emotional, they may develop behaviours that could affect their emotions, they may start to get frustrated at th e fact they are delayed with their communication. For social, they are not very confident and people will need to get them to interact with other people and get them into social groups.The physical side effect is the child will have low birth weight, their body features will not be fully developed which will mean they will have a small head, a flat face with a snub nose, they will also have a thinner top lip, they will also have widely spaced eyes. They may develop general or specific learning difficulties. For intellectual, the child may develop a few learning difficulties which will include poor memory, they also have difficulty to understand concepts such as the time and counting money. They also have bad language. For emotional, the child will have a lot of behavioural problems and for this they become hyperactive, they don’t have the ability to concentrate, they have a lot of anxiety and are very stubborn. For social, they have a lot of socialization problems which causes difficulty to build and maintain friendships. The physical side effect is that it can affect the way a person can act, they may resort into eating disorders especially girls. There may be the physical signs, for example bruising around the neck or arms, also scratches and scars. For intellectual, this can affect the way they are towards education if they are being bullied during school, they will not want to attend school so they can get away from the bullies, this will then effect there future. For emotional, it is an emotional distress, which will cause a lot of physical  and emotional pain to them. For social, this will affect how they will interact with other people; due to them being bullied they may find it hard to trust other people and to also want to become friends in case they are bullied again. This will affect how they develop in the future because they may start to isolate themselves from people if they believe they are not strong enough to stand up for themselves. The physical side may have positive and negative sides to peer groups, if you’re in a group and everyone in the group is skinny, it may lead to that person losing weight in a way they should which would affect the body functioning. For intellectual, the groups may tend to be distracted with work which will allow them to fall behind on their work and affect their future. For other groups, it may be different and they may all work together to help each other with work and to achieve what they came to education for. For emotional, the groups may lead to becoming violent towards other people which will bring out aggression in them, they may also have a friendly group which won’t do any harm to people. For social, being in groups will give them the opportunity to develop their social skills, which includes leadership, teamwork or sharing. The physical side effect is they will have a reduce the performance at all the physical training they will do. They have a higher risk of heart attacks/ strokes and will have a higher heart resting rates than non-smokers. It may also affect the financial strain which will cause more worry on a person especially if they have low income. For intellectual, smoking will lead a person to not concentrate for long; it may also lead for the person to be affected mentally. For emotional, the smoking will relieve the stress that they will be building up. For social, it can be a social activity which people will be able to interact with one another when they are outside smoking, sometimes depending on the people, it may cause negativity on relationships. Can the factor be identified before the birth of a babyAntenatal screening can be given at 13 weeks to determine the likelihood of the baby developing or developed the condition. When the women goes for her monthly check-ups, they can notice th e child’s development growth and they will know when the baby is born whether they have been drinking throughout the process of the pregnancyThis factor cannot be identified before the birth because it is the society and the  environment around them that will cause this.This factor cannot be identified because it’s the environment and the friendships that the person will develop when they are in education.The cannot be identified because they are either brought up with a family smoking which will make them more likely to smoke or they want to smoke because other people are smoking. How many the factor influence the life of an individualAll people will down syndrome depending on the condition may be able to live separate from their parents, they may find it difficult to cope but they could get a little bit of work to help them be like other people and not be different. Sometimes they get married and will live their lives.Most adults who have a drinking problem will need help to get them back on track and to be able to look after their child without them resorting back to alcohol. They can get lots of supervision help which they will be able to make day to day decisions with themFor some people, if they were bullied at a young age, it may affect the way they will interact with other people and will tend to isolate themselves, they are at a higher risk of having anxiety or depression. But if the bullying for them was a short term memory, they will forget about what has happened and will carry on with their lives. Depending on how the group has been, if the group had a negative affect then that person may be rude, mean and harsh to other people just like they have grown up doing with in their group. But if there was a positive affect then the person will stay the kind, innocent person they were which will give them more of a social life.Smoking may cause long term effects especially if they are addicted to it, some people along the way may develop cancer which is caused by the smoking which will lose their independents, depending on the condition it may lead to them not being able to live on their own. Care needs to be fulfil individual needsBoth children and adults both need regular check-ups to see how they are getting on and to monitor their health. They may develop some certain health problems and with the check-up doctors will be able to do something about it. The children may need help if they have learning difficulties, they will be able to have someone to keep close eye on them and to make sure that they are progressing, for the adults they will need help in controlling their drinking problem if they have one and to understand the damages that has happened.Any person will be able to receive counselling if they believe they cannot get over it and will need to open up  about how they feel, also having a friendly face who had not bullied the person could help to open up and talk about what had happened. Parents are the people who will be able to influence the child to change the way they were and to not be who they are or how they are turning into. This is when they will need to have someone to be there for them so they are able to open up about how they feel and to let all their aggression outThere can be talking therapies which will help change a person’s thinking and acting towards the smoking and change it positively to help t hem cut smoking and eventually quit.